An Overview Of Speed, Acceleration, & Reaction Time For Sport
Speed, acceleration, and reaction time are all components of many sports. These sports can include field-based team sports as well as individual sports such as tennis. Each one of these components are integral in performance of a team and the individual athlete. The development of these three components are major drivers in the overall physiological preparation for success in competition. It must be recognized athletes of varying sports require differing requirements of speed, acceleration, and reaction time. Taking this concept, a step further, individual positions on a team sport may have differing requirements of these categories as well. For example, a skill position player in American football will have varying requirements compared to a defensive lineman. It is important to note the necessity for specificity in terms of sport and position be recognized in the development of speed, acceleration, and reaction time during program design. Prior to program design of developing these components within the athletic population, it is important to understand speed, acceleration, and reaction time in terms of their differentiations and synergies.
Speed and Acceleration
Speed is the process of an athlete sprinting in order to cover distances in the shortest amount of time possible. (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2019). The physiological act of sprinting is the process by which an athlete will reach maximal velocity and ideally in the shortest amount of time as possible (Mero, Komi, Gregor, 1992). Speed development occurs through the athlete improving their physiological and biomotor abilities to achieve high velocities of movement (Haff & Triplett, 2016). Speed via the process of sprinting in sport can occur in either linear or multi-directional patterns. The patterns will be sport and position dependent.
Acceleration for the athletic population is the basis by which high velocities of movement are achieved rapidly. (Haff et al., 2016). Acceleration is the ability to increase maximum velocity in a minimum amount of time (Bompa et al., 2019). Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position of an object with respect to time (Haff et al., 2016).
The application of force into the ground is the underlying component of speed, acceleration, and the ability of an athlete to achieve high velocity sprinting speeds. (Haff et al., 2016). Rate of force development (RFD) is the underlying construct of the application of force into the ground. Rate of force development is defined as the development of maximal force in minimal time determined by the physiological index of explosive strength and power (Haff et al., 2016). It is important to recognize the physiological attributes connected to rate of force development, acceleration, and speed for the purposes of development within a periodization schedule.
Sprinting in the process of speed development involves two phases (Coh et al., 2018). An initial rapid acceleration phase followed by a velocity maintenance phase (Coh et al., 2018). The initial acceleration and maintenance of velocity is based upon step frequency, average vertical force applied to the ground, and contact length (Mero et al., 1992). Biomechanical constructs are present in these components such as shin angle, torso lean, and arm swing (Murphy et al., 2003). These biomechanical constructs in conjunction with rate of force development (RFD) are components to address in programming of increasing the speed and acceleration capacities within the athletic population.
Reaction Time
Reaction time though connected to acceleration and speed is a separate entity. The physiological component of reaction time necessitates a variance in training in order to enhance this aspect of the athletic population. The first step in this process is defining reaction time. Reaction time is a measure of the quickness with which an organism responds to some sort of stimulus (Young et al., 2015). Reaction time within the athletic population can be defined as the interval of time between the presentation of a stimulus and the appropriate voluntary response by the athlete (Young et al., 2015).
The stimulus within the realm of athletics can vary from auditory in the form of a starting gun in track and field to visual perception of a football being thrown by a quarterback, or the serving of a tennis ball. Regardless of the stimulus, a reaction is to occur, and the shorter the time to this reaction appears to be advantageous during competition (Tonnessen, Haugen, & Shalfawi, 2013). Improving reaction time in the athletic population involves cognitive functioning in the process of defining a stimulus, evaluation of the stimulus via the brain, and creation of a physical response to the stimulus (Young et al., 2015).
Reaction time for many field orientated sports involves agility. Agility is a change of direction coupled with situational cognitive ability (Haff et al., 2016). An example of agility would be a defensive player reacting to an opponent’s movements on offense. Another component of agility is perceptional decision making which is dependent upon visual scanning, anticipation, pattern recognition, and cognitive knowledge of game situation (Bompa et al., 2019). This aspect has been termed reactive agility and is based upon an athlete’s ability to react to situations in competition (Bompa et al., 2019). Reactive agility appears closely related to the concept of reaction time due to the cognitive components associated with the term.
Movement time is an additional component of reaction time associated with the athletic population. Movement time is the ability of athlete to quickly move a limb in the desired direction (Bompa et al., 2019). Athletic examples involving movement time would include sports such as boxing, martial arts, and tennis with racquet positioning. A decision through analysis of the sport and positions in team sports will determine the involvement of movement time, reactive agility, and corresponding development of these constructs within the athlete’s programming.
Performance Programming for Speed, Acceleration, and Reaction Time
As stated previously the underlying physiological and cognitive constructs of speed, acceleration, and reaction time necessitate programming in accordance to the following: The athlete’s sport of choice, individual position in team sports, and independent variables associated with each athlete. Overlap does exist in certain parameters pertaining to speed development, improving acceleration, and advancement of an athlete’s reaction time. Though an annual training plan incorporating a periodization schedule will address each of the physiological, biomotor, and perceptual-cognitive abilities associated with improvements in speed, acceleration, and reaction time with the appropriate levels of interdependence and independence of training.
Periodization of Speed, Acceleration, and Reaction Time
As stated previously rate of force development is an underlying physiological component of acceleration, deceleration, rate of change in velocity, and maximum speed. Therefore, an athlete intending to increase these constructs is required to improve their rate of force development. Rate of force development (RFD) is linked to the athlete’s relative strength (Bompa et al., 2019). Relative strength can be defined as the athlete’s ratio between maximum strength and their bodyweight (Bompa et al., 2019). The process of developing relative strength necessitates increases in maximum strength by first recruiting fast twitch muscle fibers with a 70-90% of 1RM within the periodization schedule (Bompa et al., 2019). This maximum strength phase will be followed with a conversion to power phase where the discharge rate of the fast twitch fibers will be enhanced (Bompa et al., 2019). During the conversion to power the athlete will be exposed to training methods in the quick application of force, acceleration, and deceleration (Bompa et al., 2019). The conversion of power will also have a positive effect on the movement time and reaction time. During these phases’ extremity limbs become stronger and react faster to a given signal (Bompa et al., 2019).
The processes of relative strength development, corresponding maximum strength, conversion to power, and quick application of forces are addressed within the resistance training and plyometric programming/periods within the periodization schedule. Separate programming/periods of speed, endurance, technical skill, and reactive agility/reaction time will be incorporated into the periodization schedule to address these components of the athlete in unison with the aforementioned physiological elements.
A final component of the process and incorporated into the periodization schedule is flexibility and mobility. Mobility is the freedom of an athlete’s limb to move through a desired range of motion and flexibility is a joint’s total range of motion (Haff et al., 2016). Insufficient mobility can limit rate of force development, the translation of energy, stride lengths, and overall propulsion (Haff et al., 2016). Even if an athlete possesses the potential to generate high rates of force in short amounts of time, limitations in mobility can limit the utilization of these forces (Haff et al., 2016). As result of the potential limitations resulting from limitations in joint ranges of mobility and soft tissue extensibility, these physiological components are to be addresses within the periodization schedule of the athlete.
The periodization of speed, acceleration, and reaction time regardless of individual or team sport can follow several distinct phases within the periodization schedule. These phases are a general speed phase, an acceleration phase, a maximum speed phase, and an anaerobic endurance phase (Bompa et al., 2019). The cognitive components of reaction time/reactive agility can be implemented into these subphases of the schedule. These phases will be incorporated within the periodization schedule addressing the underlying physiological components associated with speed, acceleration, and reaction time stated above. Simultaneously constructs will be introduced to develop the technical, biomotor, and cognitive skills associated with the development of speed, acceleration, and reaction time.
Periodization Schedule Speed, Acceleration, Reaction Time
Recognition exists of the underlying physiological constructs of physiological strength and power being pertinent components for the development of speed, acceleration, and reaction time. These components within a periodization schedule will be programed into the period of strength and power development. Separate periods of speed where acceleration will be programmed, and reaction time will be enveloped into the schedule. In accordance to the requirements of the assignment a six-week sample training program for the development of speed, acceleration, and reaction time is incorporated within the periodization schedule provided. The sample periodization schedule and coinciding programming is for a strength and power field-based sport athlete with a fall/winter competitive season. The six-week sample programming for speed, acceleration, and reaction time are within the specific preparatory and 1st transitionary phase.
| Dates | May | June | July | Aug | Sept | Oct | Nov | Dec | Jan | Feb | Mar | April |
| Periodization | GP | GP/SP | SP/1st Transition | 1st Transition | Comp | Comp | Comp | Comp | Comp | Comp | Comp | Comp |
| Period of
Strength/Power/ Plyo/Agility |
AA | AA/S
RA |
S/MS/P/PL
RA
|
MS/P/PL
TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/S/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
Maintain
P/MS/TA |
| Period of Speed | Speed
RS
|
Speed
RS GSS |
RS/TS | Maintain
TS |
Maintain
TS |
Maintain
TS |
Maintain
TS |
Maintain
TS |
Maintain TS | Maintain
TS |
Maintain
TS |
|
| Period of Endurance | LIEE
TR
|
HIEE
FD |
HIEE
GSSA |
HIEE
GSSA |
||||||||
| Technical Skill | RR | Fund | Adv | GS | GS | GS | GS | GS | GS | GS | GS | GS |
| Testing Dates | July 15th |
As presented above within the periodization schedule of the hypothetical strength and power athlete of a field orientated sport, the underlying components of joint mobility, soft tissue flexibility, strength, and power development are all aspects within their strength and conditioning program. These physiological components as stated are directly linked to increases in the athlete’s speed, acceleration, and reaction time.
Outside of developing increases in rate of force development via increases in physiological strength and power via resistance training. During the specific preparatory and 1st transitionary phases field programming will be implemented for improvements in speed, acceleration, and reactive agility. Reactive agility is the overriding component of reaction time for this individual athlete due to the field orientated sport of participation.
The speed drills for this athlete in the specific preparatory and into the 1st transitionary phase will focus on stride length and stride frequency which are base components of increasing sprint speed (Haff et al., 2016). As stated previously, the underlying component to improve stride rate and frequency is rapid rate of force production (Mero et al., 1992). To improve upon rate of force production particularly during the specific preparatory phase programming focus will be on acceleration during on-field speed programming. Acceleration refers to the rate at which an object’s velocity changes over time (Haff et al., 2016). Coaching cues to improve sprinting technique through specific form drills are programmed into the warm-up prior to the execution of the athlete’s acceleration, speed, and reactive agility drills.
The underpinning components of reactive agility like speed requires a multi-faceted approach to development. As with speed, the underlying physiological components for reactive agility such as eccentric strength, explosive strength, and the stretch-shortening cycle will be addressed in other sections outside of field drills including the resistance training and plyometric sections (Clark & Lucent et al., 2010). The reactive agility programming for this athlete will be field orientated drills due to the athlete’s sport. During the specific preparatory phase focus will be on deceleration and body position. Visual cues from the coaching staff will be utilized to recruit the cognitive component of reactive agility for this individual athlete.
The periodization schedule of the athlete’s speed, acceleration, and reactive agility drills are set into a block format where primary and secondary training goals are prescribed for each block (Haff et al., 2016). Each block will be performed for 3 weeks prior to transitioning to the next block within the programming. Field orientated speed, acceleration, and reactive agility drills are performed two times per week. As stated previously, block one of speed drills are focused upon acceleration whereas reactive agility has a primary focus of deceleration and secondary component of body position (Haff et al., 2016).
Prior to the field-based drills, the individual athlete and teammates performed a warm-up program of 15-20 minutes. The warm-up program followed a RAMP protocol consisting of dynamic exercises followed by a higher intensity series of modalities to prepare the kinetic chain for the forthcoming drills (Haff et al., 2016). Form running drills are a part of the warm-up protocol with an acceleration component associated with certain drills. The goal of the form running drills are two-fold in preparing the kinetic chain for the field drills in addition to improving sprint technique. Form running drills in the final section of the warm-up program included: Butt kickers, down and offs, A skips, and straight bounding. Drills were performed on a turf field for two sets each at a yardage of 10 yards. Coaching cues were provided throughout execution to assist in improving technique.
After completion of warm-up and form running drills, the individual athlete in the team drills performed speed drills first on day one of the weekly drills, and reactive agility second. This order was switched for second training session of the week. The reasoning was to provide a priority to each segment equally throughout the entire training program.
Speed and Acceleration Drills
The drills of block one consisted of drills focused on the initial step of acceleration. Two drills were used for this goal. The first speed drill was the lean, tall, and run. The emphasis of the drill is the first three to five steps. Emphasis placed upon starting technique and first step quickness (Boyle et al., 2016). Goal of the drill is to create initial acceleration (Boyle et al., 2016). The second drill of block one is resisted sprints. Team members partnered up and utilized a sprinting resistance trainer. One team member provided resistance as their partner executed a sprinting action against resistance. Goal of the resistance sprinting was to position athletes in the proper position for acceleration and maximize propulsion forces (Clark et al., 2010).
After three weeks of block one drills, block two drills were implemented. Block two drills continued with a focus on long acceleration development with a secondary aim of improving transition to upright sprinting (Haff et al., 2016). The lean, tall, and run drill was replaced with the push-up starts. The goal of this drills is initial acceleration and transition to upright positioning (Haff et al., 2016). The second drill of block two was sled tows. Sled tows goal was to continue improvement in propulsion forces and focus on triple extension (Haff et al., 2016).
Reactive Agility Drills
Block one reactive agility drills were performed two times per week. The primary aim of the block one drills is deceleration with a secondary aim of body position (Haff et al. 2016). The tertiary aim of the drills was the reactionary aspect of the drill from visual cueing or partner in the drills. The two drills of block one is decelerations and the lateral partner drill. Decelerations were performed in a forward run pattern up to three quarters full speed with a deceleration of 5 steps initiated by reaction to a visual cue from the coach (Haff et al., 2016). The lateral partner drill has team members split into groups of two players. The two players face each other with one of the players being the lead and the second reacting. Each group is placed in the center of lateral cones set up with five yards to each side of them. The lead player initiates the drill with lateral movement. The second player reacts to the initial movement and continues to react to movements of the lead player. After a specified time period with rest periods, players switch positions and repeat the drills.
Block two of reactive agility drills commenced after the completion of three weeks of block one drills. Block two drills continue a focus on deceleration with the added components of change of direction and re-acceleration. Lateral decelerations were implemented in block two with the goal of improving deceleration and acceleration in a lateral pattern (Haff et al., 2016). A cognitive cue was added with the initiation of a visual action of hand movement by the coaching staff. The second drill of block two is square cone drill. The cones of the drill are positioned in a square five yards apart. The athlete will position themselves in the center of the square to begin the drill. A coach will initiate the drill with a hand cue of which direction the athlete is to move. The athlete will process the direction and accelerate to the end line of the square, decelerate, change direction, re-accelerate, and return to center position of the square. The goal of the drill is to develop deceleration and re-acceleration with optimal body position with cognitive processing.
Provided below are the programing charts for block one and block two of the field orientated strength and power athlete. As stated previously each block is three weeks in length. Block one is to be implemented specific preparatory phase of the periodization schedule. Block two implementation is to proceed completion of block one.
Block One
| Drill | Emphasis | Volume |
| Lean, Tall, & Fall | Initial Step Acceleration | 4 sets x 5 yards (30 sec.) |
| Partner Resistant Sprints | RFD, Acceleration | 2 sets x 15 yards (1.5 min rest) |
| Decelerations Forward | Deceleration, Change of Direction | 2 sets x 20 yards (30 sec.) |
| Line-Stops | Lateral Deceleration, Change of Direction | 2 sets x 10 yards (30 sec.) |
Block Two
| Drill | Emphasis | Volume |
| Push Up Starts | Initial Step Acceleration | 4 sets x 5 yards (30 sec.) |
| Sled Tows | RFD, Acceleration | 2 sets x 15 yards (1.5 min.) |
| Decelerations Lateral | Lateral Deceleration, Change of Direction | 2 sets x 10 yards (30 sec.) |
| Square Drill | Change of Direction, Acceleration, Deceleration | 2 sets (30 sec.) |
Summary
Speed, acceleration, and reaction time are contingent upon the development of physiological, biomotor, and cognitive abilities within the athletic population. These constructs can be addressed via comprehensive programming incorporated within a periodization schedule. The periodization schedule will be implemented into the annual training plan in accordance to the athlete’s competitive schedule. It is important to the note speed, acceleration, and reaction time are separate entities requiring independent and interdependent training in the process of developing these components within the periodization schedules of the athletic population.
Resources
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Clark, M. Lucent, S. (2010) NASM essentials of sports performance training. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.
Haff, G. Triplett, T. (2016) Essentials of strength training and conditioning 4th edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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Young, W. (2015) Agility and change of direction speed are independent skills: Implications for agility invasion in sport. International journal of sports science and coaching, 10 (1) 159 – 167.